Big Idea

As Black veterans returned from war and Black communities thrived despite the constant threat of lynching, White resentment grew, leading to race riots and massacres in cities across the U.S. Fighting to defend their lives and livelihoods, hundreds of Black men, women, and children lost their lives, businesses, and homes.

What’s important to know?

1. Renewed Conviction: Black veterans from World War I returned home with a renewed commitment to demand treatment as equal human beings.

2. Defending Ourselves: Lynchings continued and White aggression went unstopped by the Federal and State governments. Black leaders debated among themselves the degree to which Black communities should respond with violence to stop the violence being perpetrated against them.

3. Red Summer: Throughout the summer of 1919, lynchings, massacres, and the destruction of millions of dollars of Black property occurred against Black communities across the United States.

4. The Advocacy of James Weldon Johnson: James Weldon Johnson led the effort to advocate for the passage of the Dryer Anti-Lynching Bill which would have forced the Federal Government to intervene in cases where state and local governments refused to hold perpetrators responsible for lynching.

1: Renewed Conviction

At the conclusion of World War I, White and Black men returned to their homes to find change — change at home and change within themselves.

Black veterans returned with renewed conviction to fight for their rights after experiencing life in a foreign country free from the racial profiling present in the U.S. They took pride in their service and rejected second-class treatment. This experience, combined with the New Black confidence coming out of the Harlem Renaissance, created a momentum and conviction behind Black activism that offended many Whites who still expected Black deference. Historian David A. Davis (2008) explained the emerging challenges rising in American society:

“In this social and artistic context, African American writers invoked the trope of the African American soldier, the person who incontrovertibly deserves equal citizenship, in juxtaposition with images of lynching, the radical denial of human rights, to make a case for civil rights. This juxtaposition leads to an aesthetic of lynching images that pushes a progressive agenda, fusing the artistic and social ends of the New Negro movement” (p. 477).

Historian Nell Irvin Painter pushed the argument further, when she wrote, "the senseless carnage of the First World War dealt white supremacy a tremendous blow by demonstrating to African American Americans that liberty and democracy were causes worth personal and collective sacrifice” (p. 478).

2: Defending Ourselves

While African American communities responded to each incident in their own ways, throughout the summer of 1919 the willingness of Black communities to fight to defend themselves, their families, and their property was much more public. W. E. B. Du Bois seemed to suggest that this was the only option available to returning veterans. As Davis noted, Du Bois, while not arguing for outright armed rebellion noted that equality, despite their war service, “would not be granted magnanimously” (Davis, 2008, p. 484).

Historian Jonathan Coit (2012) noted about trying to understand these events:

“African Americans participated in the riot in a myriad of ways, and events were fluid and unpredictable. Violent acts spanned a continuum from spontaneous responses to more organized interventions. Moreover, African Americans not only committed aggressive violence, but also fought among themselves about the boundaries of legitimate violence. Based on their divergent interpretations of the events of the riot, black leaders found ample support for different and even contradictory political programs. Black radicals argued that armed defense exposed the irrelevance of established black leaders” (p. 225).

3: Red Summer

The following is a list of the more well-known events that occurred in 1919 (but it is not comprehensive).

Students

Want to learn more? Watch the video below about the Red Summer of 1919.

4: The Advocacy of James Weldon Johnson

Many Black activists spoke out, wrote their Congressmen, and engaged in extensive organizing to fight the ongoing lynching and the frequent massacres occurring during the Red Summer. James Weldon Johnson (1871-1938) was one of those leaders. Credited for crafting the phrase “the red summer,” he organized peaceful protests seeking to draw more attention to the increasing vigilantism that was seizing the nation.

In 1920, he lobbied tirelessly to support the passage of the Dyer Anti-Lynching bill. The bill passed the House of Representatives but was blocked by Southern Senators and was never signed into law (Francis, 2014).

He said of the legislation, “The Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill did not become a law but it made the floors of Congress a forum in which facts were brought home to the American people as they had never seen before” (Washington et al, 1989, 56).

Community Members

Did you know? The Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill was put forward by Representative Leonidas C. Dryer from St. Louis, Missouri.

Dryer was born in Warren County, Missouri and attended Central Wesleyan College and then received his law degree from the Washington University in St. Louis.

Dryer represented the 12th District in Congress, a mostly African American district. He served in Congress from 1911 until 1933. (Biographical Directory, U.S. Congress).

Dryer worked with James Weldon Johnson on the anti-lynching bill after the horrific East St. Louis Riot of 1917 (Washington et al, 1989, p. 56).

Your Turn

What role did World War I have in changing the mentality of the African Americans regarding defending themselves with violence if necessary? How did the rise of Black intellectuals and artists contribute to this?