1921: The Tulsa Race Massacre

1900-1999: A New Divide
Written By Stephanie Brizee

Big Idea

The use of lynching and other forms of violence to seek to intimidate and control the Black population was on national display in the city of Tulsa, Oklahoma when a White Mob attacked innocent Black men, women, and children - killing hundreds and burning down almost an entire section of the city. This attack highlighted the success that Black communities were generating and the ongoing White reaction to Black economic prosperity.

What’s important to know?

  1. Black Wall Street: Black Wall Street was the name given to the Black part of Tulsa, Oklahoma. At the turn of the century, Black community members had created a thriving self-sustaining economy that was admired by Black leaders such as W.E.B. Du Bois.

  2. False Allegations: In an oft-repeated pattern, false allegations were spread about a young Black man attacking a White woman. A White mob attacked Greenwood, murdering hundreds of Black residents and setting fire to homes, businesses, and entertainment centers.

  3. Utter Devastation: The destruction caused by the massacre devastated the Black wealth created in the community — wealth that had been hard-won despite not receiving reparations after the Civil War and enduring migration, segregation, and ongoing degradation. Despite ongoing legal efforts, none of the community members were ever given financial renumeration for their losses, nor were any of the White perpetrators held to justice.

1: Black Wall Street

Little has been written about the thriving community of Greenwood, Oklahoma. In 1906, O. W. Gurley purchased 40 acres of land, which he eventually parceled out and sold to other African Americans moving into the area as part of the Great Migration.

After Oklahoma became a state in 1907, the White legislatures passed laws segregating where African Americans could live. Gurley’s area already had attracted many Black families and so continued to grow as other parts of town were closed to Black families. By 1920, the population of Greenwood was 11,000 and homes ranged from “shanties” to “luxurious multi-story homes on Professors’ Row” (Oklahoma Education Center, p. 3).

Committed to making Greenwood a thriving economic area, Black entrepreneurs opened shops and the Black residents shopped at them. Historian Alison Adams described their part of town as including, “barbershops, schools, doctors’ offices, real estate agencies, two newspaper businesses (one being the previously mentioned Tulsa Star); a food emporium, “Welcome Grocery”; the iconic “Dreamland Theatre” (Grubb), the first African American owned theatre in Tulsa; a few high-rated hotels, including the three-story, 65-room Stratford Hotel (Gara), the largest African American owned hotel in the nation; and many more places of business, as well as the residential areas, owned and rental” (Messer, Shriver, Adams, 2018, p. 792-793). In thirteen years, Black people had created a thriving city despite the ongoing racism, segregation, and systemic disadvantages they had to navigate as a part of living in the United States.

The community’s thriving stood out and attracted interest of African Americans across the country. Both Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois took note of Greenwood and it’s believed that Washington originally termed the area the “Black Wall Street” (Oklahoma Education Center, p. 3).

2: False Accusations

“Nab Negro for Attacking Girl in an Elevator,” Tulsa Tribune (Tulsa, OK), June 1, 1921, State Edition.

Image Source: Library of Congress.

The story of The Tulsa Massacre follows the same storyline as so much of the racially charged violence in the late nineteenth, early twentieth centuries. A successful Black community aroused jealousy and anger in the White population. False allegations were made accusing a young Black man of attacking a young White woman and then plans for lynching the Black man were made. This became the excuse for subsequently destroying millions of dollars worth of property and murdering hundreds of innocent people.

On May 30th, Dick Rowland, a 19 year old shoe-shiner, was accused of attempting to rape a 17 year old White elevator operator, Sarah Page (Astor, 2020). The police arrested Rowland and imprisoned him at the local jail. A rumor created by the Tulsa Tribune spread throughout the city that Rowland was to be lynched that night. Around 75 Black men arrived at the jail to defend him. A White mob numbering in the hundreds arrived with the intent of lynching Rowland. A standoff between the White mob and Black residents held until the morning of May 31st. More people arrived to bolster the number of Whites.

When the group of Black men departed the jail at the sheriff’s request, the White mob attacked (Oklahoma Commission, 2001). The Black residents that came to Rowland’s defense found themselves outnumbered in the hundreds.

Listen

Listen to a podcast series created by the New York Public Radio, Blindspot: Season 2: Tulsa Burning.

3: Utter Devestation

The White mob attacked Greenwood setting fires to businesses and homes, dropping bombs from planes, and killing Black residents that attempted to flee. The local police deputized ordinary citizens with the intent to roundup Black residents. When the fire department arrived members of the mob held them at gunpoint (Oklahoma Commission, 2001). White gunmen invaded homes and killed people in their sleep.

The National Guard arrived the morning of June 1st, two days after the attack had begun.

“Tulsa’s Terrible Tale Is Told,” The Chicago Whip (Chicago, IL), June 11, 1921, p. 1.

Image Source: Library of Congress

The final death toll ranges from 50 to 300. Investigators have found mass graves of Black victims and unidentifiable remains. The mob destroyed 35 blocks of homes and businesses and caused an estimated $1.5 million in damages. The riots displaced around 10,000 Black residents. The local government in charge of rebuilding the neighborhood used this opportunity to destroy evidence of the attack (Oklahoma Commission, 2001). The Tulsa Race Massacre fits into the greater pattern of White mob justice that controlled America in the early 20th century.

Watch

Watch the following video about the Tulsa Massacre of 1921 and ongoing efforts to seek reparations.

Video about Tulsa Massacre of 1921, “Greenwood is still Burning,” from Lush.

Your Turn

How has White fixation on economic prosperity influenced attacks on Black individuals and Black communities? What are the similarities between this massacre and the 1917 East St. Louis riot?

  • General Resources:

    • Article from St. Louis NPR on the connections between the East St. Louis Riot and the Tulsa Race Massacre.

    Books & Articles:

    • Lumpkins, C. (2008). American Pogrom: The East St. Louis Race Riot and Black Politics. Ohio University Press.

    Archives:

    • Materials from the Oklahoma Historical Society.

    Museums & Parks:

    • Gates, E. F. (2003). Riot on Greenwood: The Total Destruction of Black Wall Street. Eakin Press.

    • Hill, K. K. (2021). The 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre: A Photographic History (Volume 1) (Greenwood Cultural Center Series in African Diaspora History and Culture). University of Oklahoma Press.

    • ——-. (2016). Beyond the Rope: The Impact of Lynching on Black Culture and Memory. Cambridge University Press.

    • Young, R J. (2023). Requiem for the Massacre: A Black History on the Conflict, Hope, and Fallout of the 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre. Counterpoint.

Stephanie Brizee
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1919: Returning from War and the Red Summer
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1929: The Great Depression and Black Economic Leverage